Differences in diet requirements of pigs in various growth phases were captured by modeling wean-to-feeder pigs, feeder-to-finish pigs, gestating sows, and lactating sows as distinct systems. 2012. This uncertainty in data was addressed in the study by performing uncertainty analysis using Monte Carlo simulations. These models are very sensitive to time in barn at each growth phase, rates of conversion of feed to body weight, and mortality rates. Pigs simulated with lower MMER grew faster and lower GWP was observed per kilogram live weight. Until the second dose of GnRH compound, male pigs grow at a similar rate to boars, showing improved ADG and FE compared with surgically castrated pigs (barrows) (Batorek et al., 2012), after which, they show performance similar to barrows.

1994. McGlone J., Von Borell E., Deen J., Johnson A., Levis D., Meunier-Salan M., Morrow J., Reeves D., Salak-Johnson J., and Sundberg P.. The term mortality is used when animals die of natural causes. The model simulations showed that without added ractopamine, ADG was reduced by 5% (0.78 kg d1 for baseline; 0.72 kg d1 for NoRAC), and DFI increased by 3.5% (1.8 kg d1 for baseline; 1.74 kg d1 NoRAC). Life cycle assessment (LCA) has proven to be a powerful tool for this assessment. 2007. Therefore, to compensate for these differences, the same model was used to simulate all management practices, including the baseline. Effects of water-based antimicrobials on growth performance of weanling pigs. Any uncertainty in data used to alter the model parameters would affect the results of PPEC model. Dunshea F. R., R. H. King R. G. Campbell R. D. Sainz, and Kim Y. To support the same annual production, a small increase in necessary barn infrastructure was also required. Production parameters used for baseline scenario. 2001. An uncertainty analysis for baseline and each of the alternative scenarios in the comparative study was performed using Monte Carlo simulation to assess robustness of the results. (1997) estimated 12.7% increase in the maintenance metabolizable energy requirement (MMER) of low health status wean-to-feeder pigs compared with high health status pigs. of piglets per litter surviving to weaning, No. Based on comparative and uncertainty LCA results, production without growth promoting and preventive antimicrobials and production without ractopamine increased GWP and cumulative water use. 2006. Lanferdini E., Lovatto P. A., Melchior R., Orlando U. We recommend caution while interpreting the results of this study due to model uncertainties.

These adjustment factors were used throughout the study for all scenarios. Schmidt W. E., J. S. Stevenson, and Davis D. L.. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Diet formulation (% of dry feed) used for life cycle assessment of alternative management practices in the United States for breeding and market pigs. Effects of probiotic administration in swine. This indicates a strong sensitivity to specific implementation practices for each scenario. 2011. Hahn T., Lohakare J., Lee S., Moon W., and Chae B.. While the grow barn was an all-in all-out batch operation, the sow barn was simulated as a continuous operation, housing 1,500 animals at any time in individual gestation crates.

The site is secure. The no preventative use scenario yielded GWP of 3.96 kg CO2e, energy use of 26.04 MJ, and water use of 0.21 m3. Armstrong T. A., D. J. Ivers J. R. Wagner D. B. Anderson W. C. Weldon, and Berg E. P.. (2001) reported that immunocastration reduces the size of testes in male pigs suppressing aggressive sexual behavior. Effects of production without use of either AGP or preventive antimicrobials on performance and sustainability metrics were studied in this scenario. However, elimination of AGP was estimated to result in fewer pigs reaching expected market weight and therefore, the voluntary cull rate in nursery and grow-finish barns was increased to 0.25% for median health facilities (NPB Task force, 2012, unpublished data). Changes to mortality rate and voluntary cull rate were also made following the recommendations of the National Pork Board (Table 5). Effects of dietary supplementation with delta-aminolevulinic acid on growth performance, hematological status, and immune responses of weanling pigs.

Effect of potential multimicrobe probiotic product processed by high drying temperature and antibiotic on performance of weanling pigs. Life cycle assessment of various alternative management strategies in the swine industry was performed to evaluate their impact on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, cumulative energy use, and cumulative water use.

Therefore, changes leading to reduced (e.g., higher mortality rate) or increased production were scaled to provide the same total domestic supply of pork.

Accessibility An uncertainty analysis was performed using 1,000 pairwise Monte Carlo simulations for which the background processes were held invariant for the comparison. In 2002, Florida banned the use of sow gestation crates through a voter referendum and a similar ban was imposed on the swine industry in Arizona in 2006 (Mench, 2008).

Concerns about food safety, human health, and animal welfare are valid, but it is also important to understand relationships and trade-offs or synergy between addressing those concerns and maintaining or improving environmental impacts. Two scenarios included in this study evaluated impacts associated with elimination of antimicrobial growth promoters (AGP) and elimination of both growth promoting and preventive antimicrobial use from productions. If the changes to management practices are based on a single measurement criterion, it could result in undesirable outcomes across other metrics. In the current scenario, it was assumed that elimination of preventive antimicrobials would only result in lower ADG and FE but would not necessarily result in herd-wide sickness. 1 through through3).3).

1993. It also reduced CH4 emissions by 2.9% and N2O emissions by 2.1%; however, based on our modeling of the space requirements for sow in stalls compared to pens, the barn infrastructure requirements for pens are 65% larger. D.. Since feed is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, reduced annual feed consumption is expected to reduce GWP. 2011. Before of days between piglet removal and insemination, Change to voluntary cull rate (grow-finish). The driving factor for increased impact across all sustainability metrics was reduced animal performance. These changes in the impact categories were statistically significant (P < 0.05) for all scenarios except for changes to GHG emissions for EM and changes to water consumption for PENS and NoAGP. Yoon J. H., Ingale S. L., Kim J. S., Kim K. H., Lohakare J., Park Y. K., Park J. C., Kwon I. K., and Chae B. J.. USEPA. 2004. For this scenario, higher voluntary cull rate and mortality rate were used in both wean-to-feeder and feeder-to-finish phases. Results of comparative LCA for GWP (kg CO2e), nonrenewable energy use (MJ), and cumulative water use (m3) are represented in Table 7.

2010. Use of gestation stalls for housing pregnant sows has been criticized by animal welfare groups because the stalls restrict the animals movement (Lammers et al., 2007). Therefore, the metabolizable energy requirement (MMER) of pigs, in both wean-to-feeder and feeder-to-finish phases, was adjusted, with barn temperature set to a constant 20 , to achieve the or recommended days in barn under ideal conditions. One of the sources of uncertainty in this analysis was from the data used to parameterize the model and analyze the system. 1Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, 2Ralph E Martin Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Arkansas, BELL Engineering, Fayetteville. When herd health starts trending downward, antimicrobials are commonly used prophylactically to reduce the chance of herd-wide infection. The scope of the study was from cradle (crop, fertilizer, and fuel production) through farm gate with a functional unit of 1 kg live weight at the farm gate. An official website of the United States government. Bates R., Edwards D., and Korthals R.. Beginning from the average values of ADG, daily feed intake (DFI), FE, water consumption, and mortality rates used in the comparative study, 2 additional parameter sets for each scenario and the baseline were prepared. 2012. Smaller animals do not generate as much body heat and will, in general, have a larger surface area to weight ratio, requiring somewhat more heating energy from external sources. of pigs dying per litter before weaning, Age at which piglets are removed from barn, No.

Overall, annual feed consumption was 7.65% lower compared with the baseline. Growth and feed conversion performance of pigs, resource consumption, and emissions to the environment were simulated using PPEC model. All pigs were marketed at 125 kg. predicted by model are influenced by growth rate, feed conversion ratio, and mortality rate.

Therefore, MMER in NRC growth model was lowered by 3% and increased by 9.65% to provide distribution of life cycle inventory (LCI) about the mean value for MCS. The PPEC model controlled temperature inside the barn using simulated heating and/or cooling systems. The NRC growth equations for gestating sows include a smaller impact of temperature on MMER for group housed sows, which reduces maintenance energy requirements, leaving more energy available for fetus development and weight gain. (2003), it was estimated that sows will be inseminated 16 d following piglet removal. between various management practices and the baseline scenario.

A common baseline scenario representing standard management practices in the swine industry was created against which all alternative management practices were compared pairwise. These genetic differences in breed can influence sustainability metrics.

Studies reported lower ADG and lower FE when antimicrobial use was eliminated from the nursery phase (Dritz et al., 2002; Keegan et al., 2005; Hahn et al., 2006; Gottlob et al., 2007; Li et al., 2008; Shen et al., 2009; Choi et al., 2011; Kiarie et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2012; Yoon et al., 2013). While ADG did not change much in the feeder-to-finish phase, the DFI decreased by 3.1% which led to an overall decrease of 1.81% in total feed used for the wean-to-feeder operation. One of the sources of uncertainty in this analysis was the production model used for simulation of swine production facility. 2003. cDifference in means of a sustainability metric between a scenario and the baseline is statistically nonsignificant (P > 0.05). These changes in ADG and DFI increased total feed used in wean-to-feeder phase by 1.4%. The predicted changes to cumulative nonrenewable energy use can be concluded with 75% confidence only for NoAGP, NoPrev, and NoRAC scenarios. Use of pens was assumed for gestation period only. In 2007, Smithfield Foods Inc. (2007) announced a phase out of gestation stalls on company-owned farms over the next 10 yr and replace them with group pens. Gottlob R. O., Dritz S. S., Tokach M. D., DeRouchey F. M., Goodband R. D., Neissen J. L., Hastad C. W., Groesbeck C. N., and Neill C. R.. Figures 1 through through33 summarize the Monte Carlo simulations for each alternative management scenario. A common baseline scenario was defined which represents current industry practice. Changes in sustainability metrics for both scenarios were a result of reduced AGP and increased daily feed intake (DFI) in pigs. The study scope was from cradle-to-farm gate with a functional unit of 1 kg live weight at the farm gate. Ractopamine is a dietary supplement, which improves ADG and feed efficiency (FE, ratio of average daily gain to daily feed intake) in finishing pigs (Dunshea et al., 1993; Armstrong et al., 2004; Hinson et al., 2011; Barbosa et al., 2012). This procedure was repeated 300 times and 95% confidence interval was built around the P-values. Kiarie E., S. Bhandari M. Scott D. O. Krause, and Nyachoti C. M.. Each management strategy was evaluated based on the changes in the associated environmental impacts resulting from changes in unit processes. Alternative management practices included the use of: immunocastration replacing surgical castration, removal of ractopamine from diets, removal of antimicrobials as growth promoters, removal of antimicrobials to prevent emergence of heard infection in addition to removal as growth promoters, use of pen gestation, and split sex management of boars. Therefore, it is important to understand the effects of changes to management practices on overall sustainability, with a full and transparent accounting of potential trade-offs, decisions to change management practices are implemented.

When growth promoting antimicrobials were removed from production, GWP increased to 3.43 kg CO2e, cumulative energy use increased to 22.37 MJ, and cumulative water use increased to 0.18 m3. 2012. The effect of ractopamine supplementation at 5 ppm of swine finishing diets on growth performance, carcass composition and ultimate pork quality. In addition, 94% of group housed sows remained pregnant after initial service compared with 89.4% of sows in stalls. Dunshea et al. Morales J., Gispert M., Hortos M., Perez J., Suarez P., and Pineiro C.. Effects of yeast culture supplementation on growth performance, intestinal health, and immune response of nursery pigs, Smithfield Foods Inc It was assumed that farrowing stalls were used for both group and individual stalls scenarios. This was 1.56% increase in GWP, 1.75% increase in energy use, and 1.04% increase in water use. Mortality rate for this scenario was increased by 0.2% in the nursery phase. Bates et al. The horizontal lines of each box represent the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles of 1,000 Monte Carlo simulations and lower and upper extensions represent 10th and 90th percentiles, respectively. Feed consumption, manure production, number of days to market weight, etc. Slaughter is scheduled between 3 and 10 wk following the second dose to avoid boar taint. These analyses are simulated estimates of impacts, based on literature and expert opinion regarding operating performance associated with each management practice, and should be interpreted as trends rather than absolute estimates. S.. In the wean-to-feeder phase, ADG in pigs improved by 5.61%. For the uncastrated (entire) male (EM) scenario, inputs similar to the IC scenario were used with exceptions of administration of GnRH inhibitors and use of RAC in diet. Effects of stall or small group gestation housing on the production, health and behaviour of gilts. Anil L., S. S. Anil J. Deen S. K. Baidoo, and Wheaton J. E.. 2012. Preweaning mortality of 14 and 15% (Lammers et al., 2007) were used for stalls and group pens, respectively. Impact of dietary energy level and ractopamine on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality of finishing pigs. Uncertainty analysis shows that the predicted changes to GWP and cumulative water use can be concluded with 75% confidence for: IC, NoPrev, and production without ractopamine scenarios. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Increase in GHG emissions, energy use, and water use were observed for NoAGP (1.56, 1.75, and 1.03%, respectively), NoPREV (17.32, 18.40, and 15.58%, respectively), and NoRAC (6.52, 4.87, and 7.52%, respectively) scenarios. Furthermore, there will frequently be trade-offs among the dimensions of sustainability because of changes in production practices. Where the simulations represented by box and whisker lie above the horizontal line, the alternative management practice resulted in an increase in environmental impact. 2009.

Higher mortality in pigs combined with decreased performance resulted in fewer production cycles per barn each year compared with baseline and thus fewer pigs reaching market weight per facility. This gives a range of MMER values, which could be 3% lower or 9.65% higher compared with the mean value of 191 BW0.6 kcal used for the comparative analysis. Cumulative nonrenewable energy use increased for production without growth promoting antimicrobials, production without growth promoting and preventive antimicrobials, and production without ractopamine. Average feed efficiency for the combined her of entire male and gilts improved over the baseline by 3.14 and 1.47% for wean-to-feeder and feeder-to-finish scenarios, respectively.

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